The Wawel cathedral, in the city of Kraków, Poland

 "You are in a country that comes and goes, where the people have been mistreated but rarely oppose. Borders have changed by rulers from afar, although sometimes closer than neighborhoods are. Their religion is sacred and the heavens smile down, but the history they keep will lead you to frown." ― Sean F. Hogan, Painting Angels

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(in one of the oldest cities in Poland) Found on the upper Vistula River in the Lesser Poland Province in southern Poland, the city of Kraków dates back to the 7th century. Its marketplace, Rynek Główny (Main Square), has existed since the 13th century, and a modern landscaped area is laid out on the site of past fortifications. The official capital of Poland until the late 16th-century, this city has traditionally been one of the leading centers of Polish academic, economic, cultural, and artistic life. Cited as one of Europe's most beautiful cities, its Old Town was declared one of the world's first UNESCO World Heritage Sites (all of which were named to the list in September, 1978). Between 1795 and 1918 the city was controlled by Austria, except from 1809 to 1815, when it existed as part of the Duchy of Warsaw, and from 1815 to 1846, when, with its surrounding territory, it formed an independent republic. During the latter half of the 19th century, the city redeveloped under relaxed Austrian control, until it regained its former stature. In 1918 Kraków was returned to Poland, only to be taken by the Germans at the beginning of World War II. The German governor, who made his headquarters in Wawel Castle, executed the university’s teaching staff and sent some 55,000 Jews from the city to the Auschwitz II (Birkenau) death camp. In 1945 Kraków was liberated by rapidly advancing Soviet forces, and it suffered far less damage than other cities in the region. Thousands of historic buildings and sites are found in the city today. Most prominent are the many churches, including St. Mary’s Church, the main section of which dates from 1497. Wawel Cathedral houses several ornate chapels and burial chambers, along with a collection of ecclesiastical art. Originally constructed in the early 11th century, the cathedral was rebuilt in 1142 and 1364, and it was renovated in 1712 in its current Gothic style. Two defensive fortifications remain from medieval times, a legacy of the city’s perpetual struggle against invaders. The Barbican, a circular bastion with brick walls that are three meters thick, was built in the 15th century adjacent to the other remaining structure, the 13th-century Florian Gate. The city’s Jewish quarter, in the district of Kazimierz, contains Remu’h Cemetery, which includes numerous well-preserved tombstones from the 16th century. A city for centuries appreciated for its cultural heritage has also become a European center of gastronomic heritage. (In 2019, the city of Kraków was granted the title of European Capital of Gastronomic Culture by the European Academy of Gastronomy.)