At King Milan Square, in the city of Niš, southeastern Serbia

 "What your thoughts are like, that is what your life is like."

-- Father Tadej
===================================================================
(in southeastern Serbia, on the Nišava River) The city of Niš is important for its command of the Morava–Vardar and Nišava river corridors, the two principal routes from central Europe to the Aegean. The main rail line from Belgrade and the north divides at Niš for Thessaloníki, Greece, and Sofia, Bulgaria. Niš is also the meeting point for several roads.

+ The ancient Roman city, Naissus, was mentioned as an important place in the 2nd century CE by Ptolemy. Under the walls of the old fortress on the right bank of the river, the emperor Claudius II defeated an army of the Goths in 269 CE. During migrations of the Huns in the 5th century, the town was destroyed, and the Bulgarians conquered it in the 9th century but ceded it in the 11th century to the Hungarians, from whom the Byzantine emperor took it in 1173. Toward the end of the 12th century, the town came under the Serbian Nemanjić dynasty, but in 1375 the Turks captured it from the Serbs. Turkish domination lasted for 500 years, and the city became an important station on the route from Istanbul to Hungary. The Serbian army liberated Niš in 1877, and the city was ceded to them by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. In World War I Niš was for a period the capital of Serbia.

+ Although Niš was settled in pre-Roman times, it hit its peak during the years of the empire. Constantine the Great was born here, as were two other Roman emperors, Constantius III and Justin I. Turkish rule lasted from 1386 until 1877, despite several Serb revolts; Ćele Kula (Tower of Skulls) and Niš Fortress are reminders of Ottoman dominion. (Niš also suffered during WWII; the Nazis built one of Serbia's most notorious concentration camps here.)

+ Later playing a prominent role in the history of the Byzantine Empire, the city's past would earn it the nickname Imperial City. After about 400 years of Ottoman rule, the city was liberated in 1878 and became part of the Principality of Serbia, though not without great bloodshed -- remnants of which can be found throughout the city.

+ Serbia's third-largest metropolis is now a lively city of curious contrasts, where Roma in horse-drawn carriages trot alongside new cars, and posh cocktails are sipped in antiquated alleyways. It's a buzzy kind of place, with a high number of university students, packed-out bars, a happening live-music scene, and pop-up markets and funfairs come summertime.

+ These days, Niš is one of the most important economic centers in Serbia, especially in the electronics, mechanical engineering, textile, and tobacco industries. Constantine the Great Airport is Niš's international airport. The city is also the seat of the University of Niš, the Eparchy of Niš and the Command of the Serbian Army.

+ Depicted here is King Milan Square, a popular meeting point in Niš. The monument is dedicated to the liberation of Niš both from the Ottoman Empire as well as after World War I.

In the city of Šibenik, in the Dalmatian region of Croatia

 “What inspires me most to write is the act of traveling.”

-- Tea Obreht (born Tea Bajraktarević), author of The Tiger Wife
==================================================================
(in the Dalmatian region of Croatia) Dalmatia is one of the four historical regions of Croatia, alongside Croatia proper, Slavonia, and Istria. Dalmatia is a narrow belt of the east shore of the Adriatic Sea, stretching from the island of Rab in the north to the Bay of Kotor in the south. The Dalmatian Hinterland ranges in width from 50 km (~31 mi.) in the north, to just a few kilometers in the south; it is mostly covered by the Dinaric Alps. Seventy-nine islands run parallel to the coast, the largest being Brač, Pag, and Hvar. The largest city is Split, followed by Zadar and Šibenik.

+ Featured here is the city of Šibenik, which lies along the estuary of the Krka River not far from the river’s mouth on the Adriatic Sea. Although first documented in 1066, Šibenik was chartered in 1167 and until 1412 was fought over by Venice and others. After 1412, when Venice prevailed, Šibenik prospered despite unsuccessful assaults by the Turks. In 1797–1815 it became part of Napoleon I’s Illyrian Provinces, after which it was absorbed by the Austro-Hungarian Empire. After World War I, it was Italian and then became part of Yugoslavia.

+ Historically, the city has been known for its culture and scholarship. The Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. Jakov, which combines Gothic and Renaissance elements, was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2000. The City Gates, Loggia, and several Renaissance houses are well preserved. The medieval St. Anne’s Fortress overlooks the city from the north.

+ Šibenik is now a coastal shipping station linked by a rail line to Zagreb. Electricity from a hydroelectric station at Krka Falls, to the northeast, powers an electrochemical plant. Šibenik’s tourist trade is centred on the local beaches and the offshore islands of Prvić and Zlarin, resort areas without a local water supply.
+ Šibenik has a magnificent medieval heart, gleaming white against the placid waters of the bay. The stone labyrinth of steep backstreets and alleys is a joy to explore. (Šibenik is also an important access point for Krka National Park and the Kornati Islands.) Sometimes called the city of fortresses, which are a key symbol of Šibenik and a sign of the efforts of the domestic people to defend their city through various historical periods. There are four fortresses in the city, and all of them were built for the purpose of defence against Turkish invasion.

+ Depicted here is St. Michael's Fortress (formerly known as St. Anne's Fortress), a medieval fort in Šibenik, that is situated on a steep hill above the old historic center of the city. Its strategically favorable and dominant position made it the central part of Šibenik fortification system. Clamber up to the battlements of this large medieval fort for magnificent views (particularly impressive at sunset) over Šibenik, the Krk River, and the Adriatic islands.

In the port city of Rouen, northern France

 "One life is all we have and we live it as we believe in living it. But to sacrifice what you are and to live without belief, that is a fate more terrible than dying."

-- Joan of Arc
=====================================================================
(on the River Seine in northern France) The port city of Rouen, capital of the Seine-Maritime department in the Haute-Normandy region, is located about 78 miles (~125 km) northwest of Paris.

+ The old city, on the right bank of the Seine River and surrounded by a natural amphitheater of hills, has so many historical buildings that it has been called a ville-musée (museum-town). Despite its variety of architectural styles, Rouen's cathedral is considered one of the finest Gothic churches in France. Famous secular buildings include the late Gothic Palais de Justice and the 16th-century Hôtel de Bourgtheroulde. The Gros-Horloge, a Renaissance gateway (1527) with an ancient clock, standing next to a 14th-century belfry, is in the center of the city. The Fine Arts and Ceramics Museum includes a collection of 17th- and 18th-century French paintings and Rouen ceramics. Other museums are devoted to the 17th-century dramatic poet Pierre Corneille and to the 19th-century novelist Gustave Flaubert, who were born there.

+ Although situated abut 75 miles (~120 km) inland, Rouen is a major port, serving in part as an outport of Paris. Rouen is also a growing business and service center. Much of the city's center has been made conducive to tourism, with walking paths and retail shops.

+ The past is present in Rouen, where Gothic church spires tower over half-timbered lanes and history museums. Normandy’s riverside capital also dishes up some of the best cuisine in the region, from farm-fresh cheese to oysters hauled in from the nearby coast. With its soaring cathedral, beautifully restored medieval quarter, imposing ancient churches, excellent museums, and vibrant cultural life, Rouen is one of Normandy’s most engaging and historically rich destinations. The city has endured a turbulent history. It was devastated by fire and plague several times during the Middle Ages, and was occupied by the English during the Hundred Years War. The young French heroine Joan of Arc (Jeanne d’Arc) was tried for heresy and burned at the stake in the central square here in 1431. And during WWII, Allied bombing raids laid waste to large parts of the city, especially south of the cathedral.

+ Rouen was the seat of the Exchequer of Normandy during the Middle Ages. It was one of the capitals of the Anglo-Norman dynasties, which ruled both England and large parts of modern France from the 11th to the 15th centuries. From the 13th century onwards, the city experienced a remarkable economic boom, thanks in particular to the development of textile factories and river trade. Severely damaged by the wave of bombing in 1944, it nevertheless regained its economic dynamism in the post-war period thanks to its industrial sites and its large seaport, which today is the fifth largest in France.

In the city of Linz, capital of Austria's federal state of Upper Austria

 "Once miracles are admitted, every scientific explanation is out of the question." -- Johannes Kepler

=====================================================================
(in the capital of Austria's federal state of Upper Austria) The city of Linz lies along the Danube River 100 miles (160 km) west of Vienna. It originated as the Roman fortress of Lentia and became an important medieval trading center. By the 13th century it had all of the outward characteristics of a city but none of a city’s rights. It became the provincial capital in the 15th century during the residence of the Holy Roman emperor Frederick III and was noted for its fairs. The see of a Roman Catholic bishop since 1785, Linz has become an important cultural center, with the Johannes Kepler University, schools of art and music, a college-level Academy of Industrial and Art Design, a seminary, scientific institutes, museums and art galleries, libraries, archives, an opera house, and theaters.

+ A city rich in historic buildings, which include the old castle, St. Martin’s Church, the early Baroque Town Hall, the 13th-century main square with a monument to the Holy Trinity, the City Parish Church, the old cathedral, the Minorite (Franciscan) Church, and the 16th-century Landhaus (“State House”). Also notable are the monastic churches (Capuchin, Ursuline, Carmelite), the neo-Gothic New Cathedral (1862–1924), and the 19th-century fortifications built by Archduke Maximilian d’Este. The bridge across the Danube leads to the Urfahr quarter on the left bank beneath the Pöstling Hill.

+ Lying on a direct rail route between the Baltic and Adriatic seas, as well as on the Danube, Linz has extensive docks and a busy river-transit trade. After 1938 it developed into an important industrial center with ironworks and steelworks and a nitrogen-fixation plant. (War damage necessitated their reconstruction after 1945.) The city’s manufactures also include machinery, electrical equipment, textiles, glass, furniture, beverages, shoes, rubber, and tobacco products. With its large shopping malls and extensive wholesale facilities, Linz is a retail trade center for Upper Austria. It is a large center of employment as well, and many people work in public administration

+ This is a city on the move, with its finger on the pulse of the country's technology industry. Daring public art installations, a burgeoning cultural scene, a cyber center and a cutting-edge gallery that looks freshly minted for a sci-fi movie -- all signal tomorrow’s Austria.

+ Linz was named as the European Capital of Culture in 2009, and in 2014 Austria’s third-largest city became a UNESCO City of Media Arts. Sitting astride the Danube, Linz is not only a contemporary hub but also harbors a charming Altstadt (Old Town) filled with historic baroque architecture. Despite its historic Old Town, Linz is strikingly contemporary. The city hosts a cutting-edge cultural scene, exemplified by its futuristic electronic arts center and glass-fronted modern arts museum, both set on the banks of the river.

In the city of Verona, in northern Italy

 "But soft, what light through yonder window breaks?

It is the east, and Juliet is the sun."
-- William Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet
=====================================================================
(on the Adige River in Veneto, Italy) The city of Verona, in northern Italy, lies at the foot of the Lessini Mountains, 65 miles (~105 km) west of Venice. One of the seven provincial capitals of the region, it is the largest city in Veneto and the second largest in northeastern Italy. It is one of the main tourist destinations in northern Italy because of its artistic heritage and several annual fairs and shows, as well as the opera season in the Arena, an ancient Roman amphitheater. The city became a Roman colony in 89 BCE and rapidly rose in importance because it was at the junction of main roads between Italy and northern Europe.
+ Verona was occupied by the Ostrogoth king Theodoric (in 489 CE), who built a castle on the site of the present Castel San Pietro on the Adige River. The city remained important under the Lombard kings. It was captured by Charlemagne in 774 and was the residence of his son Pippin and of Berengar of Tours.

+ In the reign of Bartolomeo della Scala, Romeo Montague and Juliet Capulet traditionally loved and died; their romance is commemorated by the so-called Tomb of Juliet, Romeo’s House, and Juliet’s House. Bartolomeo’s brother Cangrande I (who died in 1329), was the greatest member of the della Scala family. (He protected the exiled poet Dante.)

+ Verona fell to Gian Galeazzo Visconti in 1387 and in 1405 to Venice, which held it until 1797, when it was ceded to Austria by Napoleon I at the Treaty of Campo Formio. The last congress of the Quadruple Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria, Britain) was held at Verona in 1822. In 1866 the city was united to the Kingdom of Italy. It suffered heavy damage in World War II but has since been restored.

+ Best known for its Shakespeare associations, Verona attracts a multinational gaggle of tourists to its pretty piazzas and knot of lanes, most in search of Romeo, Juliet and all that. Yet, beyond the heart-shaped kitsch and Renaissance romance, Verona is a bustling center, its heart dominated by a mammoth, remarkably well-preserved 1st-century amphitheater, the venue for the city's annual summer opera festival. Add to that numerouss churches, a couple of architecturally fascinating bridges over the Adige, regional wine and food from the Veneto hinterland, and some impressive art -- all of which makes Verona one of northern Italy's most attractive cities. (And all this just a short hop from the shores of stunning Lake Garda.

+ So splendid was medieval Verona that its reputation alone inspired Shakespeare to set two plays here (Romeo and Juliet and The Two Gentlemen of Verona). Although its connection to the real-life Capulets is tenuous at best, the so-called Juliet's House (shown here) attracts half a million tourists every year, many of them keen on reenacting the balcony scene. (Don't miss the Roman amphitheater and the Palazzo Barberi.)

In the city of Bonn, on the banks of the Rhine River in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia

 "What I have in my heart and soul must find a way out."

-- Ludwig van Beethoven
===================================================================
(on the banks of the Rhine River in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia) During the past 24 hours, Germans have been celebrating the anniversary of the country's reunification. On the third day of October in 1990, Germany was officially reunified after four decades of division into the Soviet-controlled, communist-led German Democratic Republic in the east, and the NATO-member Federal Republic Of Germany in the west. Reunification occurred only 11 months after the Berlin Wall had fallen, heralding the collapse of communist regimes in the east.

+ Having lived and worked in Germany myself, my thoughts at this time of the year also turn to the city of Bonn in the Köln (Cologne) Regierungsbezirk (administrative district) of North Rhine–Westphalia. Located on the Rhine River, about 15 miles (24 km) south of Cologne, Bonn was (from 1949 to 1990) the provisional capital of West Germany, and it served as the seat of the German federal government from 1990 until 1999–2000, when the government completed its move to Berlin (designated the capital in 1991).

+ Though probably best known as the capital of West Germany from 1949 to 1990 (and of reunified Germany until 2000), Bonn actually has a history dating back to the 1st century BCE. Roman soldiers were stationed here and the largest known Roman fort was built at Bonn. In medieval times, the town gained prominence when the Archbishop of Cologne transferred his seat to Bonn. The city's most famous son is Ludwig van Beethoven, born in 1770 at Bonngasse, where a museum now honors him.

+ When this relaxed city on the Rhine became West Germany’s "temporary" capital in 1949 it surprised many, including its own residents. When in 1991 a reunited German government decided to move to Berlin, it shocked many, especially Bonn's own residents. More than a generation later, Bonn has a healthy economy and lively urban vibe. For visitors, the birthplace of Ludwig van Beethoven has plenty of note, not least the great composer’s birth house, a string of top-rated museums, a lovely riverside setting, and the nostalgic feel of the old government quarter.

+ Prominent historic buildings are the cathedral, a Romanesque basilica (11th–13th century) surmounted by five towers, of which the central (96 meters high) is a landmark in the Rhine River valley, and the old village churches of Muffendorf (10th century), Vilich (11th century), and Schwarz Rheindorf (12th century). The former Electoral Palace (now the Rhenish Friedrich-Wilhelm University of Bonn [founded in 1786]) and the Poppelsdorf Palace, with its botanical gardens, along with the city’s beautiful avenues and parks are reminders of the electoral and archiepiscopal capital. Recreational areas include the forests of Venusberg, Kreuzberg, Kottenforst, and Ennert on the southern and western fringes of the city.)

In the city of Moulins, in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, central France

 Jean Hay, who is now generally identified with the artist formerly known as the Master of Moulins, was an Early Netherlandish painter working in France and the Duchy of Burgundy, and was closely associated with the court of the Dukes of Bourbon.

====================================================================
(in southeast-central France) Moulins (sometimes called Moulins-sur-Allier), a city in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, is the prefecture of the department of Allier. The historic capital of Bourbonnais, it is a city of art and history that is found on the right bank of the Allier River (to the northwest of Lyon) and boasts a remarkable heritage that includes the Castle of the Bourbon dukes, who were kings of France from the accession of Henry IV in 1589 to the death by guillotine of Louis XVI in 1793. (The citytakes its name from the many mills that once stood along the river banks here.)
+ Moulins' 16th- to 17th-century flamboyant Gothic cathedral of Notre-Dame houses the famous triptych by the 15th-century Dutch painter referred to as the Master of Moulins. (The cathedral has some lovely 15th- and 16th-century stained-glass windows.) The nearby 15th-century tower has a quaint jaquemart clock with automatons that strike the quarter-hours. The municipal library opposite contains the 12th-century Bible of Souvigny, a magnificent illuminated manuscript from Souvigny Priory, seven miles (~12 km) southeast of Moulins. The city, which has some fine old houses, reached a high state of prosperity in the 15th and 16th centuries. (Despite the presence of some light industry, Moulins acts primarily as an administrative and commercial center for the surrounding, prosperous agricultural region.) 

+ Explore the cobbled streets of the historic center, lined with half-timbered houses; head to the top of the Jacquemart tower for 360° degree views; and visit Notre-Dame Cathedral -- where the Bourbons are immortalized in stained glass. Don’t miss the opulent Grand Café, a jewel of Art Nouveau style, nor the Maison des Palets d’Or that has been producing chocolate temptations for more than a century. Whether you love fashion, needlework, or just a nostalgic look at the past, take a tour of the National Center for Stage Costume and Scenography. The only one in the world, it includes costumes and sets from the National Opéra de Paris and the Comédie Française. Set in a large 18th century building, this unusual museum, which holds many thousands of costumes, is quite appealing to film and theater enthusiasts.

+ Elsewhere, in the historical center of Moulins, visitors can see some interesting medieval houses, both half-timbered and in brick and stone designs, while other grand buildings include the Palace of Justice and the Town Hall. Other monuments include the mausoleum of the Duke of Montmorency in the Chapel of the Ancient Convent; the Church of Saint-Pierre; a tower that is a remaining part of the chateau of the Dukes of Bourbon, and the 18th century bridge -- the Pont Régemortes.