In the city of Oldenburg, an independent city in the state of Lower Saxony, Germany

 The Lower Saxony (state) of Germany is the country’s second largest state in size; it occupies an important band of territory across the northwestern part of the country. It is bordered by the North Sea and the German states of Schleswig-Holstein and Hamburg to the north and by the states of Mecklenburg–West Pomerania to the northeast, Saxony-Anhalt to the east, Thuringia and Hessen to the south, and North Rhine–Westphalia to the southwest. The Netherlands borders Lower Saxony to the west.

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(in an independent city in the state of Lower Saxony, Germany). Situated at the junction of the Hunte River and the Küsten Canal, which links the Hunte and Ems rivers, some 25 miles (40 km) west of Bremen, Oldenburg lies at the eastern approach to the North Sea coastal district of Leer, East Friesland (Ostfriesland). First mentioned in 1108 and chartered in 1345, it became the seat of the counts and dukes of Oldenburg in the 17th century. From 1918 to 1946 the city was the capital of Oldenburg state. There is shipping with Bremerhaven at the Weser estuary and with the Ruhr district (and Oldenburg is a center for conventions, exhibitions, and sporting events). Landmarks include the grand ducal palace , which now houses a state museum of art and culture, and the Lamberti Church. Oldenburg also has other museums and art galleries, a state theater, and botanical gardens. It is the seat of the Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg (which was founded in 1973).

+During the French annexation (from1811–1813) in the wake of the Napoleonic war against Britain, it was also known as Le Vieux-Bourg in French. The city is the place of origin of the House of Oldenburg. Before the end of the German Empire (in1918), it was the administrative center and residence of the monarchs of Oldenburg.

+ Archaeological finds point to a settlement dating back to the 8th century. The first documentary evidence, in 1108, referenced Aldenburg in connection with Elimar I (also known as Egilmar I) who is now commonly seen as the first count of Oldenburg. The town gained importance due to its location at a ford of the navigable Hunte river. Oldenburg became the capital of the County of Oldenburg (later a Duchy (from 1774–1810), Grand Duchy (1815–1918), and Free State (1918–1946)) -- a small state in the shadow of the much more powerful Hanseatic city of Bremen.

+ In the 17th century Oldenburg was a wealthy town in a time of war and turmoil and its population and power grew considerably. In 1667, the town was struck by a disastrous plague epidemic and, shortly after, a fire destroyed it. The Danish kings, who were also counts of Oldenburg at the time, appeared to have little interest in the condition of the town and it lost most of its former importance. In 1773, Danish rule ended. Only then were the destroyed buildings in the city rebuilt in a neoclassicist style. (German-speakers usually call the neoclassicist style of that period klassizistisch.)

At the Tower of London, in central London, England

 Few parts of the UK are as steeped in history as London.

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(on the north bank of the Thames River in central London, England) The Tower of London is a 1,000 year old castle that protects the Crown Jewels. Throughout its history, it was a secure fortress, a royal palace, and a prison. Today, you can see the displays of the Jewel House, the Tower’s Mint, and the Royal Armories. (The tower also has the world's largest diamond); tours from Yeoman Warders (or "Beefeaters"), offer an array of armor and weaponry, with a sense of ancient history at every turn.

+ A military garrison is maintained within the Tower, which with its precincts constitutes a “liberty” outside local jurisdictions. It is held for the sovereign by a constable, who is now always a field marshal. There is a resident governor, who occupies the 16th-century Queen’s House on Tower Green and is in charge of the“beefeaters,” as they are popularly called. They still live within the Tower, and their responsibilities include guiding tours for its two-to-three million annual visitors. Ravens with clipped wings are kept on the grounds by the yeoman ravenmaster. (A tradition dating from the time of King Charles II states that, should the ravens leave the Tower, the fortification and the state would fall.) By the Tower is Tower Bridge. (The fortress was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1988.)

+ Though the tower has been a royal residence, a treasury, a mint, an armory, and a zoo, it is perhaps most remembered as the prison where a king, three queens, and many nobles met their deaths. Most visitors head straight to the Waterloo Barracks, which contains the spectacular Crown Jewels, including the platinum crown of the late Queen Mother, set with the 106-carat Koh-i-Nûr (Persian for "Mountain of Light") diamond, and the Imperial State Crown, worn by the monarch at the State Opening of Parliament. (Slow-moving walkways slide wide-eyed visitors past the collection.)

+ The Tower of London, officially His Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London, lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, which is separated from the eastern edge of the square mile of the City of London by the open space known as Tower Hill. It was founded toward the end of 1066 as part of the Norman Conquest. The White Tower was built by William the Conqueror in 1078 and was a resented symbol of oppression, inflicted upon London by the new Norman ruling class. The castle was also used as a prison from 1100 until 1952.

+ From the early 14th century until the reign of Charles II in the 17th, a procession would be led from the Tower to Westminster Abbey on the coronation of a monarch. In the absence of the monarch, the Constable of the Tower is in charge of the castle. The zenith of the castle's use as a prison was the 16th and 17th centuries, when figures who had fallen into disgrace, such as Elizabeth I (before she became queen), and Sir Walter Raleigh, were held within its walls.

In the city of Vienna, capital of Austria

 "One day, in retrospect, the years of struggle will strike you as the most beautiful."--Sigmund Freud, an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis

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(on the eastern edge of the Vienna Woods (Wienerwald) the northeasternmost foothills of the Alps) Vienna is the capital, largest city, and one of nine federal states of Austria. It is the country's most populous city, with some two million inhabitants. It is the largest (by population) of all cities on the Danube river.
The city lies on the northeasternmost foothills of the Alps that separate Vienna from the more western parts of Austria -- at the transition to the Pannonian Basin. It sits on the Danube, and is also traversed by the Wienfluss (Vienna River). Vienna is surrounded by Lower Austria, and lies around 50 km (31 mi.) west of Slovakia and its capital Bratislava, 60 km (37 mi.) northwest of Hungary, and 60 km (37 mi.) south of Moravia (in the Czech Republic).

"The once Celtic settlement of Vedunia was converted by the Romans into the castrum and canaba Vindobona (province of Pannonia) in the 1st century, and was elevated to a municipium with Roman city rights in 212. This was followed by a time in the sphere of influece of the Lombards and later the Pannonian Avars, when Slavs formed the majority of the region's population. From the 8th century on, the region was settled by the Baiuvarii. In 976, the Babenbergs established the Margraviate of Austria. In 1221, Vienna was granted city rights by Leopold VI. The reign of the Habsburgs began in 1278. In 1558, Vienna became the capital of the Holy Roman Empire, which it remained until 1806. It was the capital of the Austrian Empire from 1804 to 1867, and of the Cisleithanian part of Austria-Hungary from 1867 to 1918, and soon became the capital of Austria.

+ Until the beginning of the 20th century, Vienna was the largest German-speaking city in the world, and before the splitting of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in World War I, the city had two million inhabitants. Today, it is the second-largest German-speaking city after Berlin. Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations, OPEC and the OSCE. In 2001, the city center was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

+ Vienna has been called the "City of Music" due to its musical legacy, as many famous classical musicians such as Beethoven, Brahms, Haydn, Mahler, Mozart, Schoenberg, Schubert, and Johann Strauss called Vienna home. It is well known for having played a pivotal role as a leading European music center, from the age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. Vienna is also said to be the "City of Dreams" because it was home to the world's first psychoanalyst, Sigmund Freud. The historic center of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque palaces and gardens, and the late-19th-century Ringstraße, which is lined with grand buildings, monuments. and parks.

In the city of Reykjavik, the capital of Iceland

 "And that is the way of the world, that some men put errors into circulation and others afterwards try to eradicate those same errors. And so both sorts of men have something to do."

-- Árni Magnússonan, an Icelandic scholar and collector of manuscripts.
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(on the Seltjarnar Peninsula, at the southeastern corner of Faxa Bay, in southwestern Iceland) Reykjavik, the capital of the country, is a gateway to the out-of-this-world natural sites that make up the Golden Circle, like Geysir Geothermal Area, Gullfoss Waterfall, and Thingvellir National Park.

+ The world's most northerly capital combines colorful buildings, quirky, creative people, eye-popping design, and busy nightlife, with a capricious soul. Yet, the city itself deserves a few days to help you get a feel for icelandic culture. Start by digging into Nordic food (order anything with fish or lamb), then dive into Reykjavik’s legendary music scene -- it is a hub for the indie and electronic musicians that fuel its nightlife. Afterwards, recharge in one of the area’s hot springs. (You can’t go wrong with a soak in the Blue Lagoon baths.)

+ In the long, cold winter, Icelanders warm up in this city's geothermal spas; while, away from the city lights, they can drink in the beauty of the aurora borealis. In the summer, the weather is divine and the days are long. There are also gushing waterfalls, inspiring geysers, expansive glaciers and open spaces filled with Icelandic horses and sheep. Reykjavik also boasts interesting museums and local shops.

+ Iceland's capital is a prime home base for exploring many of the country's most treasured natural wonders, such as the Golden Circle. According to tradition, Reykjavík (“Bay of Smokes”) was founded in 874 by the Norseman Ingólfur Arnarson. Until the 20th century it was a small fishing village and trading post. It was granted municipal powers and designated the administrative center of the Danish-ruled island in 1786. The seat of the parliament since 1843, it became the capital of a self-governing Iceland under the Danish king in 1918 and of the independent Republic of Iceland in 1944.

+ Reykjavík is now a major fishing port and the site of nearly half of the nation’s industries. The city is largely built of concrete and is heated by hot water piped from nearby hot springs. Its many public outdoor swimming pools are also geothermal. Buildings of note include the Parliament Building and the Church of Hallgrímur.

+ Among the city’s cultural highlights are the National and University Library of Iceland, the University of Iceland, the Iceland Symphony Orchestra, and the National Gallery of Iceland. (Árni Magnússon Institute in Iceland is a department within the University of Iceland and is based on his collection of Árni Magnússon manuscripts.

In the medieval city of York, in county of North Yorkshire, northeast England

 "Heaven take my soul, and England keep my bones!"

-- William Shakespeare
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(in One of northern England's most popular tourist destinations) The medieval city of York, long the ecclesiastical capital of the Church of England, boasts one of the country's magnificent cathedrals. Its largest medieval church, York Minster can trace its roots back to the spread of Christianity in the 3rd century, though the present Gothic structure was built some 1,000 years later. Other highlights of a visit to York Minster include seeing its spectacular 14th-century stained glass windows, plus the richly decorated interiors of the choir and north transept. You'll also want to visit the crypt, which contains parts of the original 11th-century church the cathedral now stands on.

+York also boasts a number of major museums, the most popular being the National Railway Museum. Highlights of this museum's vast collection include many fine old steam engines dating as far back as 1820, plus a unique collection of Royal Trains. The museum also offers an excellent afternoon tea experience in the historic Countess of York railway carriage, which is bookable in advance.

+ The city of York in the geographic county of North Yorkshire, lies at the confluence of the Rivers Ouse and Foss, about midway between London and Edinburgh. It is the cathedral city of the archbishop of York and was historically the ecclesiastical capital of northern England. (York is also the traditional county town of Yorkshire.)

+ The Romans occupied the site in 71 CE and built a fortress and wall. Under the name Eboracum, the settlement served as the Romans’ northern military headquarters until they withdrew about 400 CE. Anglo-Saxon rule later followed. In the 7th century Paulinus became the first archbishop of York, and Edwin, king of Northumbria, built a church where the present Minster stands. The Danes conquered York in 867 and retained it as their Northumbrian capital. (The city’s present name was derived from the Danish Yorvick.)

+York suffered severely in William I’s conquest of northern England. Part of the city was demolished, land was flooded, and two defensive castles were built to subdue the north. In time the city revived and prospered as a wholesale commerce town, dealing especially in wool. (The York cycle of 48 mystery plays, performed by York’s medieval craft guilds, survives.) The city was incorporated in the 12th century and for a time was second only to London in size and importance. York’s Cathedral (Minster) of St. Peter, the largest Gothic church in England, was built between the 13th and the 15th century. Other medieval buildings include the Guildhall, the Merchant Adventurers’ Hall, St. William’s College (1453; founded for chantry priests), and many more.

+ Let York Minster draw your gaze towards the heavens. (One of York’s great treats is how often, when turning a cobblestone corner or squeezing down an age-old alley, one bumps into its soaring cathedral, York Minster.)

In the city of Lucerne, capital of the canton, central Switzerland

 It is said that the recipe for a gorgeous Swiss city is a cobalt lake that's ringed by mountains of myth, blessed with a well-preserved medieval Altstadt (Old Town), and a reputation for making beautiful music ... and sprinkled with covered bridges, sunny plazas, candy-colored houses and waterfront promenades.

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(in the Swiss canton of Lucerne in central Switzerland) The city of Lucerne, capital of the canton, is both stunning and popular since the likes of Goethe, Queen Victoria, and the composer Richard Wagner savoured its views in the 19th century.

+ The city of Lucerne is found on the Reuss River where it issues from the northwestern branch of Lake Lucerne, southwest of Zürich. The city’s name was derived from the Benedictine monastery of St. Leodegar (Luciaria), founded in the 8th century. From the nearby fishing village grew a city, whose inhabitants were originally serfs of the monastery. After the opening of the St. Gotthard Pass (ca. 1230), Lucerne developed into an important trade center between the upper Rhine River and Lombardy in northern Italy. In 1291, both the monastery and city were purchased by Rudolf IV of Habsburg (also called Rudolf I of Germany), against the will of the citizens, who desired independence. Political instability under Rudolf’s successors led Lucerne in 1332 to join the alliance formed by the cantons of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden in 1291. The group won independence after the Battle of Sempach (in 1386) against the Habsburg army. By 1415 Lucerne had acquired most of the territory of the present canton, by either treaty, armed occupation, or purchase. It became the leader of the Catholic cantons at the Reformation and was the seat of the papal nuncio from 1579 to 1874. The city’s aristocratic regime was compelled to abdicate in 1798 under the onslaught of the Napoleonic armies. (Lucerne was briefly the capital of the Helvetic Republic, resuming its status as the cantonal capital in 1803.)

+ Lucerne has become one of the most important tourist resorts in Switzerland. Steamer services on the lake connect with various mountain railways and cableways, and there is a direct narrow-gauge rail connection with the winter-sports center of Engelberg. Facilities include a casino, beaches, rowing and sailing regattas, horse-racing and show-jumping competitions, an annual international music festival, and a traditional pre-Lenten carnival.

In the Amalfi Coast, along the southern edge Sorrentine Peninsula, in the Campania region, Italy

 An outstanding example of a Mediterranean landscape, the Amalfi Coast is one of Italy's most stunning destinations. Here, mountains seem to plunge into the sea in a vertical scene of precipitous crags, cliff-clinging abodes, and verdant woodland.

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(on a stretch of coastline in western Italy overlooking the Tyrrhenian Sea and the Gulf of Salerno) The Amalfi Coast is is located south of the Sorrentine Peninsula and north of the Cilentan Coast. Known worldwide for its Mediterranean landscape and natural diversity, the Coast is named after the town of Amalfi, which makes up its main historical and political center. It is a popular destination, and has been an attraction to Europeans since the 18th century, when it was a frequent stopover on their Grand Tours. (The Amalfi Coast was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997.)

+ During the 10th–11th centuries, the Duchy of Amalfi existed on the territory of the Amalfi Coast, centered in the town of Amalfi. The Amalfi coast was later controlled by the Principality of Salerno, until Amalfi was sacked by the Republic of Pisa in 1137.

+ The only land route to the Amalfi Coast is the 40 km (25 mi.)-long Amalfi Drive (Strada Statale 163) which runs along the coastline from the town of Vietri sul Mare in the east to Positano in the west. That same topography gives the Amalfi some of the most idyllic and scenic beaches in all of Italy.

+ One look at the Amalfi Coast and you may think that you have found heaven on earth. That's the kind of effect this stretch of Italian coastline tends to have on millions of annual visitors that cross its paths. Located in the Campania region of Italy, this place covers 34 miles of majestic terrain; sky-high costal cliffs display vibrant vegetation and multicolored towns live side by side with the turquoise waters of the Mediterranean, creating a scene that stops even the most seasoned of travelers dead in their tracks. The coast and the seaside towns are all connected via the SS163 highway, considered one of the most scenic drives in the world. Each town comes equipped with typical Amalfi topography, as well as standout attributes of its own. The pastel-colored Positano, which draws wealthy free-spenders, is famous for its cliffside resorts and fine Italian dining, while the town of Amalfi is Italy's oldest maritime republic, which once served as a big commercial and technical hub in the Mediterranean. The alpine town of Ravello may not be for the faint of heart, but its ancient villas and stunning ocean views will be etched in your memory for years to come. Praiano's secluded shorelines will appease beach lovers and Minori, home to one of the oldest pastas in the world, is a mecca for foodies. And, if you plan on passing through Cetara, you can stop at an ancient Norman tower (which, according to legend), was founded by Hercules himself. However you decide to explore the Amalfi Coast, its glory is likely to to leave you amazed, long after you have gone.